Browsing by Subject "Belonging"

Loneliness is a common and near-universal experience that causes us to feel isolated and disconnected from others. More and more Americans experience it most or all the time. With at least 30% of the US population experiencing loneliness and 10% of lonely people suffering deeply, even before the Covid-19 pandemic set upon us in 2020, the loneliness epidemic is an issue that the whole society, including Christian communities, needs to combat. In a capitalist society that emphasizes individual freedom, autonomy, and productivity, we continue to experience economic prosperity and advancements in fields like healthcare and communication technology. At the same time, we have become more self-focused and mistrusting, while polarizing political divisions are growing ever wider. Fewer people join in social communities like church groups and sports teams, and an average person’s social network is declining. As a result, Americans are increasingly disconnected from friends, family, and neighbors. Loneliness tends to happen due to transitions such as aging, singleness, bereavements, disconnections, and a lack of connectedness, of community, and of belonging. There is a myth that elderly people are the loneliest group; the truth, however, is that young adults are the loneliest. This ongoing public crisis is not only causing people to suffer silently but also killing them literally, and the general public is not aware of it. Members of the lonely society are longing for acceptance, purpose, and love, and what they need are meaningful interpersonal relationships. Although Christ has called Christians to share the gospel and participate in his ministry of caring those who suffer and are in need, Christian communities in America are not ready to tackle the issue of loneliness. In order for them to tackle it, they must change their lens on loneliness, because it is often considered bad or undesirable by Christians. How can Christian communities create meaningful connections and transform loneliness into belonging? At the heart of the loneliness epidemic is the lack of meaningful relationships. The loneliness epidemic is a reminder that living a self-centered life is not life-giving nor sustaining. The fact that we have the loneliness epidemic despite the many opportunities to connect with one another is a reminder that we not only need stronger connections with one another, but also a deeper connection with our Creator. The loneliness epidemic is also a reminder that members of Christian communities cannot be complacent but must follow Jesus in their neighborhoods and reach out to those who are in need, including the lonely. I research loneliness from three perspectives: philosophy/theology, mental/emotional/physical/spiritual health, and the intersection of religion and health. In doing so, I explore the issues that can be beneficial to Christian communities in responding to the loneliness epidemic. I focus my research on such issues as how loneliness has an impact on individuals mentally, emotionally, physically, and spiritually; how loneliness affects demographics like young adults, the elderly, and Christian leaders; the role of psychotherapy and other interventions and approaches for reducing loneliness; and the necessary actions members of Christian communities and leaders can take part in against the loneliness epidemic. I explore the nature and dangers of loneliness from the perspectives of contemporary researchers on loneliness and theologians like Augustine of Hippo (354-430), Thomas Aquinas (1224 – 1274), and John of the Cross (1542-1591).

Having a high-quality friendship has been consistently related to lower feelings of loneliness and greater feelings of belonging in college. Yet many students report having several close friendships and the contributions of the quality of these additional close friendships, and the variability between them, for loneliness and belonging in college is unclear. Furthermore, students’ representations of friendship may help explain variation in friendship quality across multiple friendships and between college students. This dissertation examines the quality of and satisfaction with three close friendships in college using both variable- and person-centered approaches to characterize within- and between-person friendship variability. It also considers connections between these friendships and loneliness, belonging, and representations of friendship. Both studies are drawn from a larger survey-based study of college students’ relationships (N = 674 undergraduates). Study 1 first provides descriptive information about the quality of and satisfaction with college students’ three closest friendships. Between- and within-person variability in friendship quality and satisfaction are examined and person-centered analyses are used to identify different profiles of multiple friendships. Study 1 considers the implications of each of these friendships, of within-person variability (range scores) across these friendships, of between-person variability in average and of maximum quality across friendships for loneliness and belonging, as well as examining person-centered friendship profile differences in loneliness and belonging in college. Findings from Study 1 indicated that college students’ friendships were generally high in positive quality and satisfaction. These friendships are similar in many ways, but the very best friendship also stood out in terms of positive friendship quality and satisfaction. Gender-specific friendship profiles were identified for positive quality, shared activities, and conflict, but not satisfaction, and having certain friendship profiles also corresponded to differences in loneliness and belonging. Additive effects for the quality of and satisfaction with additional friendships beyond the very best friendship in predicting loneliness and belonging were consistently found. For positive quality, the range of positive quality across friendships moderated the effect of the mean level of positive quality in buffering against loneliness, but no other within-person variability effects were found. Average and maximum quality across friendships did predict well-being, however, these aggregate metrics of multiple friendship quality and satisfaction were not better predictors of well-being than the quality of and satisfaction with the very best friendship alone. Collectively, these findings suggest that multiple friendships matter for well-being and to some degree, variability across friendships is also associated with well-being. Study 2 considers two types of friendship representations—friendship beliefs and friendship feature value—and their connections with between- and within-person variability in friendship quality and satisfaction. Overall maladaptive beliefs and average friendship feature value are examined as predictors of average quality, range in quality, maximum quality, and covariates of friendship profile membership. Additional exploratory analyses examine whether specific beliefs or features especially predict friendship quality or satisfaction. Findings indicated that beliefs and feature value were each unique predictors of between-person differences in average and maximum friendship quality and satisfaction across friendships. Furthermore, when looking at certain beliefs, the associations between those beliefs and friendship quality and satisfaction were stronger for men than for women. To a lesser degree, beliefs or feature value (depending on the friendship feature) were associated with within-person variability (range scores) in friendship quality and satisfaction. Beliefs and feature value also covaried with friendship profile membership. Collectively, this dissertation highlights the importance of the quality of and satisfaction with multiple friendships in college, links the quality of and satisfaction with multiple friendships with loneliness and belonging, and demonstrates the relevance of friendship representations for the quality of college students’ closest friendships.