Sacred Nature: The Conservation Status of Herpetofauna on Nusa Penida, Indonesia

Abstract

Despite Indonesia’s exceptionally high reptile and amphibian diversity, many herpetofaunal communities remain poorly studied. Nusa Penida, a small island off Bali, is a highly modified yet ecologically distinct system with limited herpetological research. We surveyed herpetofauna across 17 sites in 2025 and compared results with standardized surveys conducted in 2012. Mean species richness declined from 5.65 to 3.94 species per site, indicating an overall reduction in diversity, although trends varied among sites. Current species accumulation patterns suggest that additional sampling would likely detect further diversity. We also documented Oligodon bitorquatus for the first time on the island, representing a notable range expansion. A trait-based risk assessment indicated that most snake species face elevated vulnerability under combined ecological and anthropogenic pressures. In addition, Sacred Natural Sites consistently supported higher species richness than non-sacred sites, suggesting that culturally protected landscapes may serve as important refugia. These findings reveal potential shifts in Nusa Penida’s herpetofaunal communities and underscore the conservation importance of culturally protected habitats.