Browsing by Subject "Emissions"
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Item Open Access Abating Carbon Emissions in the Aviation Sector: Policy Analysis and Recommendations for the Federal Government(2012-04-26) Shenoy, VenaiThe top U.S. airlines by passenger volume move a little more than half a billion passengers annually, both domestically and internationally, burning millions of gallons of fuel and releasing millions of tons of the GHG carbon dioxide in the process. After building a case for action, this paper assumes that the United States Federal Government cannot sit idly by and is considering a carbon mitigation strategy for the aviation sector. Using publicly available data from MIT, the paper measured the carbon emission intensity of the major U.S. airlines to determine how efficiently airlines allocate carbon emissions, with the results providing insight into areas for emissions efficiency improvements. After determining that modernizing U.S. airline fleets is the most realistic opportunity to curb emissions, the paper developed a standard policy criterion to determine the best mix of regulatory policies to do so. It found that an emissions trading system, economic safeguards against foreign carriers and financial incentives for innovation can promote fleet modernization, decreasing carbon emissions across all airlines. Combining this modernization with new FAA air traffic management strategies, carbon emissions can be appreciably curbed despite projected growth.Item Open Access AN ANALYSIS OF A CARBON OFFSET PROGRAM FOR THE UNITED STATES(2007-05) Uchida, RyotoIn the current absence of the federal government’s strong leadership to address climate change in the United States, mandatory regional tradable permit programs for greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions are being planned by several state governments. A carbon offset program, combined with a tradable permit program, induces a wider range of entities to implement offset projects that reduce GHG emissions within a wider range of industries than the industries regulated by the tradable permit program. An offset project has to be additional, meaning that it generates emission reductions as compared to the baseline emissions. Therefore, the additionality assessment is the most important element of a carbon offset program, but it is complicated because it requires estimating a counterfactual baseline scenario. For a carbon offset program in the United States, energy efficiency projects to reduce GHG emissions on the demand-side of energy are important. However, energy efficiency projects are prevented from being undertaken due to the high transaction costs of the project-specific additionality assessment method adopted by the Clean Development Mechanism. In this paper, a policy analysis is conducted to produce recommendations to solve this problem. First, along the rationally selected evaluative criteria, a qualitative comparative assessment is made on the policy alternatives implementing different additionality assessment methods as a definitive test. Then, based on the assessment, this paper discusses how to more flexibly implement and combine the different methods to address the problem. Finally, the recommendation is made for a comprehensive, simple and practical policy to assess additionality for a carbon offset program in the United States.Item Open Access City of Greenville, NC Greenhouse Gas Accounting and Emissions Reduction Plan(2022-04-22) Rosenthal, Regan; Patchett, MaggieAs we near the International Panel on Climate Change’s 2030 deadline to halve global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, cities are being called upon to proactively manage the negative effects of urbanization. Greenville, North Carolina aims to join the growing list of American cities who are taking responsibility for their role in climate change by generating a comprehensive inventory of the GHGs emitted by their municipal operations. Our team’s objective was to catalog the city’s greenhouse gas footprint and make recommendations according to our findings, working in coordination with the City Manager of Greenville, NC. Specifically, we were tasked with creating an emissions inventory that could be used as the city’s baseline, against which future years’ inventories could be measured and compared to track reductions over time. We produced a baseline GHG emissions inventory of municipal operations from fiscal year 2019, as that was the most recent fiscal year which experienced no operational interruptions from the Covid-19 pandemic. The inventory identifies activities and sectors with high emissions contributions, and we used this data to recommend the emissions reductions measures that would be most beneficial to the city. Our GHG emissions accounting methodology utilized the standardized framework for local governments created by ICLEI’s Cities for Climate Protection Campaign. Using ClearPath—ICLEI’s GHG emissions inventory tool—we generated an emissions report which includes an emissions inventory, projections of future emissions, and forecasts that predict the effects various potential reduction measures might have on Greenville’s GHG footprint over a 10-year period. The emissions report contributed to the development of a sustainability project work plan with benchmarks and targets to track municipal emissions reduction performance over time. Key Findings: 1. The majority of Greenville’s emissions are Scope 1, or direct emissions from operational activity. 2. The greatest contributing sector of municipal operations to the city’s emissions inventory is Vehicle Fleet. In this instance, “Vehicle Fleet” encompasses both municipal vehicles and transit vehicles, though future inventories should distinguish between the vehicle types to better target possible areas for emissions reductions. 3. Greenville’s emissions per capita for municipal operations are not directly comparable to other North Carolina municipalities. The City of Greenville does not have operational control over some activities and sectors included in their peers’ inventories of government operations. Key Recommendations: 1. Implement energy efficiency improvements within Greenville’s vehicle fleet to reduce the sector’s contribution and the overall emissions footprint for municipal operations. 2. Disaggregate data into individual records within ClearPath to better understand which activities by sector have the largest contribution to better select emissions reduction measures. 3. If data is available, use the same process to generate a 2005 emissions inventory for the purposes of setting goals and measuring progress. 4. Continue the momentum from this project by making sustainability a permanent fixture within city operations through the hiring of a sustainability professional.Item Open Access CO2 Emissions Analysis and Reduction Targets for Jackson Hole Mountain Resort, Jackson, Wyoming(2007-05) Rose, Matthew F.Ski resorts are increasingly concerned about the impact global warming will have on the future of the ski industry and many recognize their role as net contributors of greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere. The majority of North American ski resorts have signed the non-binding Sustainable Slopes Charter, a voluntary industry-wide commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions where technologically and economically possible. Jackson Hole Mountain Resort is a signatory to the Sustainable Slopes Charter and has been tracking environmental performance statistics to analyze where improvements can be made to operations, equipment and patron behaviors to reduce CO2 emissions in accord with the Charter. The following report focuses on propane use in buildings, fuel use in operations and vehicle miles traveled to the resort as the primary areas for immediate and effective CO2 emissions reduction at Jackson Hole Mountain Resort.Item Open Access Comparison of Vehicle-to-Grid versus Other Grid Support Technologies(2012-04-25) Duan, ZhiyuWith the accelerating adoption of electric vehicles, using the batteries in the existing vehicle fleet to discharge to the power grid when needed (vehicle-to-grid, V2G) provides a potential alternative for supplying grid support. This master project focused on the often-overlooked side of V2G, the energy efficiency, and compared V2G versus other grid support technologies in terms of their efficiencies and emissions. Given V2G is most suitable for regulation service, other available technologies serving regulation were selected for the comparison. The project adopted a fuel-to-grid scope when conducting the comparison among different grid support technologies, meaning the efficiency at which fuels are converted into final grid support, along with the associated emissions, were analyzed and compared. The comparison led to three major findings: (1) energy storage-based technologies achieve a lower fuel-to-grid efficiency than gas turbines do; (2) V2G is less efficient in delivering grid support than grid-dedicated battery banks and flywheels; (3) storage-based technologies, especially V2G, would significantly increase CO2, SO2, and NOx emissions.Item Open Access Economic Value of Cellulosic Ethanol: Analysis of Advanced Biofuels from Energy Cane in South Florida(2010-04-29T18:42:50Z) Tullos Anderson, JadaThis study presents a pro forma cash flow analysis of a cellulosic ethanol production facility in Florida, as well as insight about potential air quality impacts of cellulosic ethanol production and use. The economic analysis is based on a real company, Vercipia, which will produce cellulosic ethanol biochemically from a hybrid of sugarcane known as “energy cane”. Overall, the project as modeled is economically beneficial to the economy, governments and company given the assumptions made. Compared to conventional gasoline production and combustion, cellulosic ethanol will decrease greenhouse gas production; however, this benefit may be outweighed by production of air toxics. The impact of ethanol combustion on air toxic production must be determined before a more accurate conclusion of total benefits can be made.Item Open Access EMISSION AND EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS FOR DUKE UNIVERSITY’S TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM(2018-04-27) DeNoia, MichaelIn the United States, the transportation sector accounts for approximately 1/3 of energy consumption and 1/3 of total CO2 emissions. In fiscal year 2017, the Duke University GHG footprint was 258,582 metric tons of CO2e, 27% from transportation-related sources, 52% of these further originating from employee commuting. In support of its Climate Action Plan, the university set a goal to reduce the employee single occupancy vehicle (SOV) commute rate from the 2013 baseline of 73% to a rate of 68% in 2018, but increased headcount and average employee commute distance have made attaining this goal difficult. The goal of this project was to consider underlying factors influencing commuter mode choice, to identify hurdles to adoption of alternative modes of transit, and to develop recommendations for innovative solutions for helping to reach the university’s climate goals. This analysis first assessed the current employee commuting behavior and metrics used to quantify GHG impact. In doing so, it also considered limitations of our current infrastructure and practices and identified institutional improvements needed to support effective transportation planning. The project then considered potential short-term programs for implementation and provided a sensitivity analysis of the GHG impact, dependent on employee participation in such programs. Finally, it provided next steps for piloting the recommended programs at Duke and projections for achieving short and long-term emissions goals.Item Open Access Human Dimensions of Blue Carbon - Resource Portal(2023-04-28) Lo Presti, Marta; Liyanagamage, Sandunie; Pertuz Molina, María CeciliaBlue carbon is defined as the carbon stored in ocean ecosystems, and there is increased interest (among governments, non-government organizations, businesses, and philanthropies) in preserving, restoring, or enhancing blue carbon ecosystems. Categorized as a natural climate solution (NCS), blue carbon interventions are among the tools countries can mobilize to combat climate change. The Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) has formed an EDF-Bezos Earth Fund Blue Carbon Pathways Working Group to explore which blue carbon solutions would serve as high-quality carbon credits in three broad ecosystems: near shore (e.g., mangrove, seagrass, salt marsh), macroalgae, and off-shore (e.g., mesopelagic, and pelagic fish, great whales, the seabed). The criteria presented in the “Carbon Credit Guidance for Buyers,” a joint study by EDF, WWF, and Oeko-Institut, can be used to assess whether a carbon credit is of high-quality (World Wildlife Fund (WWF) et al., 2020). EDF wanted a better understanding of the existing knowledge around the socioeconomic aspects of implementing blue carbon interventions that could contribute significantly towards meeting country-specific decarbonization goals. Therefore, during the summer of 2022, our team conducted an extensive review of the social, economic, institutional, and governance aspects of blue carbon interventions. This research identified a gap in the multiple blue carbon resources and tools available to the public. Though there are multiple resources that discuss different aspects of blue carbon ecosystems (e.g., methodologies to calculate carbon sequestration), we found limited information about the human dimensions of blue carbon interventions. As blue carbon ecosystems are explored for their carbon sequestration potential and source of high-quality carbon credits by multiple stakeholders, it is vital that the human dimensions of blue carbon and blue carbon intervention are considered because of equity concerns and the project’s impacts on livelihoods. Therefore, our master’s Project focuses on developing a database, ‘Human Dimensions of Blue Carbon – Resource Portal’, to identify key findings on social, economic, management, finance, equity, and community participation aspects associated with blue carbon initiatives. We collected and analyzed 60 resources developed in the 2011-2023 timeframe. We focus on the nearshore, macroalgal, and offshore blue carbon ecosystems to align with EDF’s ecosystems of interest. These resources are in various forms, including reports, news articles, websites, case studies, and guidelines. We focus specifically on the gray literature, produced, or commissioned by the various government, non-government and private sector actors working on blue carbon, with goals similar to EDF: to identify the conditions under which blue carbon initiatives are likely to succeed, ideally delivering co-benefits for carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and people. The database serves as a structure for our overall analysis and contains general bibliographic information for each resource (e.g., reference type, author type, year published, partners list) followed by an indication of which, if any, of the human dimensions are addressed. The database can thus serve as a resource for EDF and others, directing them to specific resources that address particular topics (e.g., users interested in learning more about equity in blue carbon can identify resources that include it). It also serves as the base of an analysis of the current state of human dimensions coverage in the gray literature presented in this report. Our findings suggest that a majority of blue carbon projects are not taking human dimensions into consideration. This database and our analysis would help project developers and carbon credit buyers understand the social context associated with implementing a blue carbon project. This database should also provide insights into understanding the gaps in the knowledge on socioeconomic and equity views. Based on our 60-resource sample, it is clear that the different categories of equity are not deeply explored within the blue carbon space. Our database should be used by project developers evaluating a blue carbon initiative as a tool to identify gaps in human dimensions. We expect to provide this database to EDF to be housed within their website and shared with the broader blue carbon community. Our analysis is based on 60 resources, but further resources can be added to support more comprehensive analyses. Although our analysis may answer some important questions and provide insights into blue carbon interventions, we want to highlight the importance and need for continuous updates to the database to keep track of the most recent findings in that space.Item Open Access Item Open Access The Electric Vehicle Transition: An Analysis of the EV Value Chain and Market Entry Strategies for an Energy Client(2020-04-24) Adams, Tucker; Davenport, Emily; Vitha, JayThe increasing adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) will change the landscape of several industries including transportation, technology, and electric power. EVs will impact the business plans and strategies of energy providers as they continue to provide energy to customers. An energy client is trying to capture the additional value that EVs are going to bring to the energy sector. This study analyzes and categorizes the current state of the EV market, both in Texas and nationally, organizes the current projections made from large industry reports, assesses the value chain of EVs and provides recommendations for an energy client about how to best proceed with a new strategy that incorporates EVs to make the firm successful in this quickly changing industry.Item Open Access The Impact of Electricity Storage on Energy Sector Emissions(2011-04-29) Keaveny, BrianThe composition of the U.S. electrical power system reflects competing objectives, as investments are driven by ratepayers who demand access to electricity that is both low cost and reliable. Maintaining generation ready for fluctuations in demand currently requires the inefficient use of generation assets, driving up total energy system costs. During the night, low demand for electricity can force the underutilization of wind farms and baseload coal-fired plants. During the day, load-following natural gas-fired plants are often operated at partial capacity so they can be ramped up to track changing demand. One means to address these two issues is electricity storage. Electricity storage technologies are capable of shifting surplus low cost nighttime electricity to times of higher daytime demand. Whether time-shifting electricity storage technologies may enable lower energy system costs depends upon the parameters of these technologies and future conditions. In this study, a least-cost optimization energy model (MARKAL) managed by U.S. EPA is used to explore the potential future role of electricity storage under varying conditions. Scenarios model a stricter national renewable portfolio standard (RPS), varying natural gas prices, and a national limit on CO2 emissions from the energy system. Scenario results are analyzed to discern the impact of electricity storage on generation output and on the associated energy sector emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx, and PM10. Four trends emerge when examining the impacts of time-shifting electricity storage on the national energy system. First, electricity storage enables an increasing utilization of baseload generation and a corresponding decreasing reliance on daytime load-following generation. Second, and to a lesser degree, nighttime natural gas-fired generation increases, making use of existing capacity. Third, the overall decreasing natural gas use by load-following generation leads to the increasing use of natural gas in the industrial sector. Fourth, the use of time-shifting electricity storage does not result in net increases of electricity output from renewable power sources. The impacts of these four trends on generation investments and emissions vary by the future conditions modeled. In many instances the use of electricity storage results in a less expensive energy system with higher emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx, and PM10.Item Open Access The Philadelphia 2030 District: Measuring Transportation Emissions Now and in the Future A Quantitative and Qualitative Review(2018-04-20) Reinheimer, SarahThis MP primarily focuses on the challenges surrounding measurement of Philadelphia’s 2030 District transportation emissions. While in the past, policy makers have primarily focused on electric power generation and industry to limit the growth of GHG emissions, transportation emissions today account for 27 percent of U.S. GHG emissions (EPA, 2015). Transportation is also now the fastest-growing source of GHG emissions, and there are 1/3 more vehicles on the road than there were in 1990 (Sorrel, 2016). Transportation infrastructure lasts decades, and the decisions surrounding urban development comes not just from national, but local and city governments. This is where cities, in partnership with businesses and other stakeholders, can play a substantial role in limiting the growth of these emissions, both now and in the future. This project has three focuses: 1. A Quantitative Review. I developed a transportation GHG emissions baseline for the Philadelphia 2030 District. 2. Qualitative: I designed a survey to track transportation emissions moving forward for the District. 3. Comparative: I researched the five Districts already measuring their transportation GHG emissions.Item Open Access The Social Context of Environmental Exposures: an Application to Swine CAFO Air Effluent and Pregnancy Outcomes in North Carolina(2012) Tosiano, Melissa AnnCompared to full weight infants, low birth weight infants are at greater risk for short and long term health consequences. Maternal exposure to air pollution is associated with low birth weight, although these studies did not extend to rural sources of air pollution[1]. The aim of this study was to investigate the association of maternal exposure to swine CAFO air emissions with birth weight. Information on all North Carolina births from 2004-2008 was extracted from the NCDBR. Maternal exposure to swine CAFO air emissions were estimated using NC CAFO water release permitting in a geographic information system. Using ordinary least squares regression modeling, this study implicates a statistically, but not clinically significant association with exposure to swine CAFO emissions and a decrease in birth weight. As the metric of estimated maternal exposure to swine CAFO air emissions became more refined (binary< interaction< exponential decay) the association between swine CAFO exposure and decreased birth weight was increased. Prior studies have found associations between swine CAFOs and poor health in proximate communities, but none have addressed birth weight [2-8]. The results of this research indicate rural sources of air pollution could potentially adversely impact birth outcomes of especially sensitive mothers.